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On the Sustainability of the National Architecture Movement Mosque Typology: Architect Kemalettin’s Mosques

Abstract: The National Architecture Movement is a style that took shape with the Turkish movement that developed under the influence of nationalist thought in the West in the 19th century, and was born as a reaction to the late Ottoman architecture that was under the influence of the West at that time. This style aimed to refine our understanding of architecture and with these principles it left traces in today’s Turkish towns. Kemalettin, the architect, (1870–1927) who was one of the pioneers of the movement, designed many buildings that reflect the first national architecture period. Mosque structures were especially in the foreground among the structures that were built within the style of the period. These structures represent private areas that reflect the social, cultural and economic structure; lifestyle and philosophy of the periods they belong to; urban memory; and are important witnesses of past cultures and periods. Sustainability of these structures should be ensured by protecting them with their unique plan schemes, decorations and construction techniques.

In this context, the study includes the architectural analysis of the mosques designed by Architect Kemalettin Bey, who is one of the pioneers of the First National Architecture style, with his unique characteristic structure. The aim of the study is to read the national architectural movement mosque typology through the Architect Kemalettin’s mosques and to contribute to the documenting, preservation and thus the sustainability of the mosque typology, which has its own characteristics. Depending on the fact that Kemalettin Bey was the pioneer of the period, the mosques under study are thought to have the quality to give information about the period.

Keywords: The National Architecture Movement, mosque typology, Architect Kemalettin

1. Introduction

Period structures are important elements of our cultural heritage with their social, economic, cultural and physical values. These structures are with documentary values that reflect the historical development of the countries in all its stages. Therefore, transferring these structures to future generations is important in terms of ensuring the urban identity and continuity of culture, because the concept of sustainability, which aims for countries to exist in the next centuries, cares about defining structures with their social and cultural dimensions and ←17 | 18→emphasizes the sustainability of the heritage. Based on this, within the scope of the study, the national architectural movement and the mosque structures of Architect Kemalettin, which is the first modernization effort in the history of Turkish architecture, are discussed.

The First National Architecture Movement is a style that is known with many other designations such as “The First National Style”, “National Architecture ←18 | 19→Renaissance”, “New-Ottoman”, “New Classical Style”, “Neo-Classical (Turkish) Style”, and “Ottoman Revival” [2–7]. The reason that the title “national architecture period” is used within the scope of this study is because it is the most inclusive and most common designation. This style, which developed in the last years of the Ottoman Empire and continued to have an influence in the first 10 years of the Republican Period, thus being effective between the years 1908 and 1930 in Turkish architecture, covers a period of 20 years that started with the declaration of the Second Constitutional Era and ended in the 1930s [3, 6]. Although this movement is a style that started in the era of the Ottoman Empire, it made its actual impact during the time of the Turkish Republic [7].

In the 19th century, Turkey started to be socially differentiated and architecture entered into a requirements change [8]. The nationalistic movements seen in the West in the 19th century spread to the Ottoman lands as well, and after the Second Constitutional Era the Ottomanist mindset gave way to neo-Turkism [9]. This period happened to be the time when the Ottoman Empire collapsed and the Turkish Republic was founded, and a time when nationalist thought was dominant in the country and the thoughts developed in this context in time exercised influence over architecture as well. Therefore, it was Turkish nationalism that shaped the national architecture movement. This style can be interpreted as the reflection of the nationalism that emerged with the declaration of the Second Constitution in 1908 to the field of architecture.

Loss of land and continued decline of state authority during the years of the First World War led to a search for a solution among Ottoman intellectuals, and as a result a nation-centred approach was pursued [10, 11]. Contrary to rejecting the West, a nationalism that aimed at Westernization, namely modernization, but also at the same time one that resisted Western exploitation was searched for by being called national defence, national economy, national industry and national saving in the political sphere; and being searched for in many areas it found its reflections in architecture as well. In the light of this nationalist policy, the construction of buildings influenced by the West in these years began to be criticized, and thinkers like Ziya Gökalp spreading Turkish nationalist thought raised the topic of a new architecture in this regard [6]. At that period, nationality replaced religion as the primary indicator of identity, and elements borrowed from classical Ottoman architecture (namely, Turkish culture: According to Ziya Gökalp, the source of national culture is not the culture of the Ottoman sultans but the culture of the Turkish people) were fused with the academic design principles and construction techniques of Europe (namely the Western civilization) [5].

Two architects that pioneered the first architecture movement and enabled it to develop were Kemalettin and Vedat. These two architects completed their ←19 | 20→education in Europe and returned to the country, attempting to execute a new style. In that period the Turkish ideology, which was the product of nationalism prevalent in Europe and influential in Ottoman politics as well, produced the national architecture style in which Turkish-Islamic Architecture was revived. The efforts of the two pioneers of the style to form an ideal Turkish architecture was compatible with the dominant political mindset of the time, and this resulted in the spreading of the style in a short time. Architects who aimed to form a Turkish architecture by avoiding foreign influences perpetuated this style from the declaration of the constitution until the first periods of the republic. The movement which started in Ankara, İstanbul and İzmir started to spread to other cities as well with the support of the government, and state buildings were constructed with respect to this movement. Also, in this period there was demand for a law that would force private individuals to construct buildings in accordance with this style [12]. With these circumstances, a brand new period in Ottoman architecture commenced in the 20th century.

2.1. General Architectural Features of the First National Architecture Movement

The first national architecture movement was seen as too stylized, Westernized and modernized, distant from tradition to be included in the Ottoman tradition by Ottoman and Islam architecture historians, and for Turkish architecture historians it was the alternate that had to be left behind in order to catch the spirit of the modern age [5]. In these years, architects endeavoured to create a new architectural identity by experimenting with new building types, construction techniques and design methods for the first time. Architects stylized Westernized forms with references that they made by not detaching themselves from Ottoman Islam Architecture altogether. In this process, Westernization movements taking place in the Ottoman geography influenced architectural structures as well; and architectural motives of Western architectural works such as Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque were used in combination with Islamic elements [13]. Even though this style is interpreted as a style that strives for modernization but in fact straddles as a result of not being able to sever itself from Ottoman Islamic architecture, it is also seen as the first modernization effort in the history of Turkish architecture.

The vagueness that emerged with regard to the interpretation of the first national architecture movement – the vagueness of a style that incorporates modern functions and at the same time makes references to the Ottoman-Islam past – rendered it open to many different readings and interpretations that varied ←20 | 21→over time. Ottoman artists and architects evaluated this style as the heritage of the Ottoman, while for Turkish nationalists and early republican followers it was the Turkish national style. According to Turkish nationalists and republicans, it was argued that Ottoman form and motives used in the buildings were not peculiar to religion or Ottoman culture but instead to Turkish culture itself. In these years Ottomanism gave place to Turkish nationalism ideology together with the First World War, and as a result increasingly more Turkishness was included to Ottoman forms symbolically. Especially Young Turkish architects, who received education from Vedat Bey, Kemalettin Bey and Guilio Mongeri, adopted the Turkish nationalist style. These architects saw the Turkish nation as the nucleus of the society. In the year 1918, Ottoman revivalism in Ottoman architecture undoubtedly began to mean Turkish national style [5].

In the first national architecture works Ottoman or Seljuk coves, marble columns, chequered, stalactite capitals, tile panels and metallic decorations were used, especially entrances of facades were given importance to and domes with no spatial correspondent underneath were emphasized. However, in spatial construct, high medium spaces covered with glass on top, that are not found in Ottoman, and are seen in large banks and similar structures in Europe, were used [11]. The representatives of this so-called movement tried to apply to civil architecture elements such as wide starboards, domes, lancet arches, columns, corbels, stalactite capitals and tile coatings which they borrowed mostly from older religious structures. The movement was mostly seen in public buildings; it did not have much of an effect on residences [7].

In its most general expression this style supported the ideology of the years it covered, thus configuring in a modern way lancet arches, domed and steeple towers, wide starboards, tiles, etc. of Turkish-Islamic architecture, and used them again by incorporating them into Western style structures [5]. When we look at structures built in this period, instead of searching for a new plan, architects gave more importance to facade arrangement and ornamentation program [6]. National architecture movement is an architectural discourse in which Western contemporary techniques are used together, which for some it is a blending [5]; for some it is a contradiction [6]; for some researchers it is far from responding to the requirements of the era, as well as being eclectic, formative and sentimental [12]; according to some it is a synthesis concerning form by not being spatial [7]; and according to some it is eclectic Ottoman revivalism [11]. Shortly, as the most general expression of national architecture style, it is possible to say that it is the effort to bring together elements taken from Ottoman architecture and new construction techniques.

The collapse of the National Architecture Renaissance, that was shaped in this way, started around 1927 and it was completed in 1931. In these years, pertaining to Western-oriented and secular cultural politics, references to Ottoman architecture were left behind for Republican architects [5], buildings enacted with the use of Ottoman revivalism came to a complete halt and at the start of the 1930s First National Architecture gave way to simple but functional modern architecture.

2.2. Kemalettin the Architect

Kemalettin the architect, who combined old Turkish style with new requirements, is one of the most important names of the national architecture movement. His real name was Ahmet Kemalettin and he was born in Istanbul in 1870. He graduated from the school of engineering in 1891 but he did not practise engineering because of his interest in art and architecture. Kemalettin was sent to Istanbul to inspect Turkish architecture by the German government in those years and was appointed as Assistant to professor of architecture, Jasmond. In the year 1895 with the support of his teacher Kemalettin was sent to Germany to complete his education, then he returned to the country appointed as architecture and building. Kemalettin remained loyal to the national art with what he learned from the school of engineering and in Germany. The most fruitful period of Kemalettin Bey in terms of architecture is the ten-year period between 1909 and 1919. In the year 1909 he was appointed as head of Evkaf Nezareti (General Directorate of Foundations); the directorate was maintained to work in the form of a large architecture and construction bureau [3, 7, 14, 15].

Some important works of Kemalettin Bey that have endured to our present day are as follows: Bebek Mosque (İstanbul, 1913), Bostancı Kuloğlu Mosque (İstanbul, 1913) and Bakırköy Kartaltepe Mosque (İstanbul, 1923–24), Sultan V. Mehmed Reşid Türbesi (İstanbul Eyüp, 1910–12), IV. Vakıf Hanı (İstanbul Bahçekapı, 1916–26), Edirne Karaağaç Train Terminal (1913–14, Trakya University Rectorate) and Ankara Palace, which was left unfinished by Vedat Tek [16].

As a result of the cerebral haemorrhage he had in Ankara in 1927 Kemalettin died and the first national architecture period closed; after this, the Turkish architecture of the period was dominated by an international design sensibility under the influence of foreign architecture teachers from abroad [17].

3. Analyses from Kemalettin the Architect Mosques

3.1. Method

This study aims to obtain information about the national architecture period’s religious structures by analysing them with the spatial analysis method. The work was ←22 | 23→prepared in order to achieve this end and was organized into two parts. First, books, articles, newspaper articles and theses were found and the literature was searched. In the literature study performed, it was understood that Kemalettin the architect had designed mosques primarily in Istanbul, and also in Bandırma, Isparta, Geyve, Konya, Samsun, Aydın and Ankara, but some of these were not constructed and remained as designs. Additionally, it is common knowledge that Kemalettin the architect had carried out the rebuilding projects of some mosques that were originally built by other architects and were demolished. As for the scope of this study, five mosques, built within Istanbul boundaries and that best reflect the characteristics of this period, are discussed [1]. The mosques selected are Bostancı Kuloğlu, Bebek, Kamer Hatun, Yeşilköy Mecidiye and Amine Hatun Mosques (Tab. 1).

Tab. 1: Kemalettin the Architect mosques that were analysed

The analyses of selected mosques were not performed at the level of interior space, and were limited with mass characteristics, construction technique and facade setup. The reason for this is the fact that the national architecture movement is a style that mostly focused on facade setup. The title of facade setup includes the main mass and the plan type of narthex sections, their relationship with the main mass, the title of facade setup includes the entrance doors, fenestration and general facade main mass form. The analyses were made on the basis of plan, section, appearance and visuals, schematic drawings of plan and facades were entered into tables.

3.2. Analyses

Kemalettin the architect designed mosques in various cities such as İstanbul, Bandırma, Isparta, Geyve, Konya, Samsun, Aydın and Ankara, but some of them were not constructed [1]. In the context of the study, examples that best reflect and that were built with respect to Kemalettin the architect’s architecture style are analysed (Tabs 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6).

Tab. 2: Bostancı Kuloğlu Mosque mass and facade arrangement analysis

Tab. 3: Bebek Mosque mass and facade arrangement analysis

Tab. 4: Kamer Hatun Mosque mass and facade arrangement analysis

Tab. 5: Yeşilköy Mecidiye Mosque mass and facade arrangement analysis

Tab. 6: Amine Hatun Mosque mass and facade arrangement analysis

In the context of the study the analyses of the mosques were performed under the titles of mass characteristics and facade setup, and in relation to the literature and visuals. After the analyses were done, schematic drawings were made and ←24 | 25→added to tables. In this context, in the title of mass characteristics, main mass and plan type of narthex sections, their connections to the main mass; in the title of facade setup main mass and entrance doors of narthex sections, fenestration and general facade mass form were included. Findings obtained with regard to these titles are as follows (Tab. 7).

Tab. 7: Mass and facade analyses findings of mosques

Most of the Empire’s late period mosques are such small-scale structures. Yavuz states that these mosques that were built with the nationalist sentiment ←30 | 31→of those times, with a style inspired by classical Ottoman architecture, do not go beyond being miniature structures striving to reflect the grandeur of the past [1]. Kemalettin the architect mosques that were analysed within the scope of this study confirm the above statement. Even though Kemalettin the Architect was educated abroad, he could not detach his style from the elements of Seljuk and Ottoman architecture. He used arches, tiles and ogee arches. An eclectic approach, in which he reinterpreted arches, is observed.

When we look at the general characteristics of the structures, we see that they are generally single-niche, single-minaret and single-domed. It is seen that the structures examined do not possess any specific typology, especially the facades are similar to each other, but in fact they are facades with distinct designs due to small differences. As for the most prevalent characteristic in plan and facade plan, it is symmetry and symmetry axis is formed by the entrance axis. The entrance is emphasized in all mosques.

National Architecture current and the emphasis of modernism appeared in the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in years where disposal is done understanding of architecture and style. The most important structures that stand out in the society in terms of religious structures in Turkish society are mosques. From this point of view, it is important to preserve the mosque architectural typology of the period today and to transfer it to the next generations.