Informal Language Learning

0.1. Introduction

The use of internet-based technologies, such as smartphones, computer games or social networks, has provided unprecedented contact with English as a second language (L2)¹ beyond the confines of the language classroom. Contemporary learners across all age groups have become English users who actively participate in activities such as watching films or TV series, listening to music, playing video games, chatting on Twitter/X and WhatsApp, or zooming friends abroad during their free time. These informal language activities are self-initiated by the learner rather than being guided by the teacher (Lyrigkou, 2023), and although language learning may be intentional, these practices are mainly undertaken for the sake of enjoyment and entertainment, resulting in language learning as a by-product.

In recent years, the domain of informal learning has emerged as a significant area of investigation within the context of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). Online exposure to English has made it possible to be in contact with the L2, regardless of geographic constraints. In fact, research on informal language learning is not confined to a single geographic or cultural context. While early research was predominantly conducted in Asia (e.g., Chan et al., 2002; Lamb, 2002, 2004a, 2004b), subsequent studies expanded their scope to the European context (e.g., Bonnet, 2004; Grau, 2009; Lindgren & Muñoz, 2013) and to other continents like Africa, Australia/Oceania (e.g., Dressman et al., 2016; Pearson, 2004) and North and South America (Cole & Vanderplank, 2016; Lai et al., 2018). Thus, various target languages, including Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, French, German, among others, have been the focus of research in informal language learning (see Schwarz, 2020; Sundqvist, 2020). However, given the widespread influence of English and its dominant cultural position through digital media (such as music and audio-visual materials), most research into informal language learning is primarily related to the English language (Toffoli et al., 2023: 6).

A variety of terms have been used to explore the field of informal learning in L2 acquisition, such as “Learning Beyond the Classroom” (LBC) (Benson, 2011), “Language Learning in the Wild” (Hannibal Jensen, 2019), “Online Informal Learning of English” (OILE) (Sockett, 2014; Toffoli & Sockett, 2010), “Extramural English” (EE) (Sundqvist, 2009), “Informal Digital Learning of English (IDLE)” (Lee, 2017; Lee & Dressman, 2018), and “Informal Second Language Learning” (ISLL) (Arndt, 2019). OILE, IDLE, and EE specifically refer to informal learning of the English language. However, while OILE and IDLE focus on online learning, EE includes online and offline environments. In contrast, ISLL functions as an umbrella term including these diverse approaches to informal language acquisition, thus being more “terminologically inclusive” (Toffoli et al., 2023: 3).

Although the notion of informal language learning can be found in some studies in SLA, such as Spada (1986) or Murphy (2005), it was not until recent years that this area gained recognition as a distinct research domain in its own right. Initially, research primarily focused on examining the nature and frequency of exposure to out-of-school practices. Early studies, such as Sundqvist (2009) are illustrative of this approach (see also Olsson, 2011; Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2016; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012). These early investigations contributed to a comprehensive understanding of the most commonly undertaken activities across various contexts and their impact on L2 development. The findings from these initial studies also led to more nuanced research on the mediating role of different variables such as age, gender (Muñoz, 2020; Muñoz & Cadierno, 2021), and proficiency (De Wilde et al., 2020; Peters & Muñoz, 2020). More recent studies have shed light on the influence of individual factors, such as motivation (Dörnyei, 2001; Lyrigkou, 2016; Song & Bonk, 2016), engagement (Arndt, 2019), and different affective variables (e.g., anxiety, confidence, enjoyment, willingness to communicate, etc.), linking them to specific language outcomes (Lee, 2022; Lee et al., 2022; Lee & Drajati, 2019; Lee & Lee, 2019; Lee & Sylvén, 2021; Leona et al., 2021).

Additionally, a holistic learner-focused perspective that emphasizes the interplay of diverse individual, cognitive, and affective variables is encouraged by a growing number of scholars who highlight the need to understand L2 acquisition as a personalized process, unique to each learner’s needs and experiences (Godwin-Jones, 2018: 12). This points to the complexity of assessing L2 development and highlights the importance of supplementing psychometric research with qualitative methodologies (e.g., case studies, reflective journals, or narratives) that may provide deeper insights into L2 development (Schwarz, 2023; Toffoli et al., 2023). This perspective also aligns with theoretical approaches employed in online informal learning research, such as Complex Theory (Cameron & Larsen-Freeman, 2007). This theoretical framework considers both cognitive and environmental factors, emphasizing non-linear pathways in L2 acquisition that point to the diversity of individual developmental trajectories. In fact, Complex Theory (CT) is regarded as a valuable approach for analyzing the dynamic processes occurring within the learner’s Personal Learning Environment (PLE) (see Godwin-Jones, 2018). Sockett (2023: 116) describes the PLE as a useful metaphor for achieving a more holistic understanding of the language learner’s experience, which is specific to each individual. These investigations may help to uncover a variety of learner profiles and individual differences, providing valuable guidance for L2 teachers in tailoring informal practice opportunities to better accommodate their students’ needs (Trinder, 2017).

Indeed, research into the perspectives of both teachers and students in various educational contexts has also progressed (e.g., Lai et al., 2016; Schurz & Sunqvist, 2022; Toffoli & Sockett, 2015). The increasing availability of authentic L2 content on the internet and advances in technology development point to a clear shift in the teacher-learner dynamic, which entails new roles and responsibilities for teachers that extend beyond the walls of the classroom. Teachers need to face new pedagogical challenges and develop methodologies that bridge the gap between classroom instruction and the real-world language use. To achieve this, teachers are encouraged to gather information about their students’ informal language practices by employing both traditional and innovative data collection methods. These insights can enhance the language learning experience and offer opportunities for more personalized education. Teachers are also urged to implement and develop flexible teaching approaches to connect in-class activities with technology-mediated L2 use (Thorne & Reinhardt, 2008), such as blended learning (see Schmid et al., 2014) or the Flipped classroom model. These approaches emphasize students’ preparation before class to foster active engagement during classroom sessions (Strayer, 2012; Thai et al., 2017, among others). Not only teachers, but also schools are expected to shoulder the responsibility of bridging learners’ informal language practices with traditional language learning (e.g., Kannan, & Munday, 2018; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012; Thorne & Reinhardt, 2008). The ability to transcend the physical boundaries of the classroom is an essential competence that 21st century L2 English teachers are expected to acquire (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2016).

0.2. Overview of the chapters

This book is divided into seven chapters. In this section, we present an overview of the chapters contained within this comprehensive volume, each dedicated to unraveling the multifaceted dimensions of informal language learning.

Chapter 1 focuses on the evolution of the field of informal learning from the early studies on the characteristics of the “good” language learner (Naiman et al.’s, 1978; Rubin & Thompson, 1982) and their ability to find opportunities for learning out of the classroom to current research on the large variety of informal learning topics, such as out-of-school practices or incidental language acquisition. This examination of previous literature on informal language learning will provide valuable insights into the current research landscape in this field. The diverse terminology used to refer to this type of learning is thoroughly addressed and differences across terms are discerned. Lastly, the relevance and compatibility of usage-based linguistics with informal learning, namely the fact that learning is input-dependent and experientially-based, is examined.

Chapter 2 explores the significance of exposure to English input as the main source for informal language learning. It reviews various theories analyzing the role of input, such as Krashen’s 1985 monitor model and Gass’s (1997) Input Interaction model. Additionally, it examines the significance of other factors, such as output (Swain, 1985, 2000) and language interaction (Long, 1981), as essential elements intertwined with informal learning. These concepts are closely related to a usage-based approach to L2 acquisition (see Chapter 1), which integrates both a cognitive and a social dimension (see Hannibal Jensen, 2018; Hulstijn et al., 2014) in an attempt to provide a more comprehensive perspective that combines social contexts with linguistically and cognitively oriented L2 learning processes (Pavlenko, 2002: 91). This section also delves into the core principles that underlie informal language practices, drawing upon Lee’s (2022) ten key characteristics of Informal Digital Learning of English (IDLE) as a classification framework. These characteristics may help to explain learners’ motivation for engaging in informal language practices.

Chapter 3 examines out-of-school practices and their influence on second language acquisition. It begins by providing an in-depth exploration of the most common out-of-school activities. This is followed by a comprehensive analysis of audio-visual practices, with a specific focus on TV programmes, series, and films (both with and without subtitles). The chapter also addresses activities such as engaging in digital gaming and listening to songs. Additionally, the chapter analyzes the frequency and amount of time generally devoted to the activities across different genders (Muñoz, 2020) and age groups (Greenberg et al., 2010; Peters, 2018). It places particular emphasis on digital gaming outcomes (Hannibal Jensen, 2017; Sundqvist, 2009; Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2014), revealing that engaging in gameplay is a highly popular activity among learners aged 8 to 16 years old, particularly among boys. This engagement leads them to attain higher scores on vocabulary tests compared to girls (Hannibal Jensen, 2017; Muñoz, 2020; Peters, 2018; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012). Findings also suggest a prevalence of receptive activities over productive ones (De Wilde et al., 2020; Muñoz et al., 2018).

Chapter 4 explores additional learning practices that are conducted outside the classroom, focussing on reading, writing and speaking activities. It delves into the main types of activities associated with the practice of these language skills and assesses their impact on learners’ language proficiency. Firstly, the chapter examines reading practices (e.g., newspapers, journals, magazines, webpages, blogs, e-books, printed material, among others), highlighting the well-documented beneficial effects of such practices on L2 development. However, research suggests a decrease in the popularity of extensive reading among learners worldwide, particularly younger learners. This decline is partly attributed to the large vocabulary size and high level of English proficiency required for this activity (Lindgren & Muñoz, 2013; Pellicer-Sánchez, 2016; Puimège & Peters, 2019). This suggests that reading practices may be more suitable for adults or proficient L2 learners.

The chapter also discusses research on writing (e.g., traditional paper practices but also participation in forums, fan fiction, or blogs) and speaking practices, although these areas seem to be under-researched compared to reading informal practices. Results indicate that out-of-class writing and speaking practices remain less popular, as learners tend to indulge more frequently in receptive activities (e.g., listening to music, watching films or audio-visual material) rather than interactive activities. Research also suggests that learners tend to engage in activities than combine writing, reading and speaking modes simultaneously (De Wilde et al., 2020; Lindgren & Muñoz, 2013). In fact, multimodal input (e.g., reading with visual or aural support, etc.) seems to promote L2 development to a greater extent than unimodal input. The chapter concludes by emphasizing that exposure to English outside the classroom is a widespread phenomenon.

Chapter 5 deals with individual variables, specifically motivation, engagement, and affective factors. While early research on informal language learning primarily focused on exploring the out-of-school activities in which learners were involved and the impact of this exposure on language gains, contemporary studies have shifted their attention to investigating the individual variables that favour informal L2 learning and influence its outcomes (Arndt, 2019; Lee, 2022; Lyrigkou, 2016; Toffoli et al., 2023). Therefore, this chapter delves into the significance of motivation in informal language learning. Specifically, it reviews studies that explore the interplay between motivation and engagement, as well as motivation and other affective variables. For instance, research has established a connection between intrinsic motivation and positive attitudes, leading to increased overall engagement (Arndt, 2019). The chapter also analyzes informal learning engagement and its relationship with proficiency and enjoyment. Lastly, affective variables such as anxiety, confidence, enjoyment, and willingness to communicate are further examined.

Chapter 6 presents both teachers and students’ perspectives regarding informal language practices across different countries. It also examines the challenges that L2 teachers must confront in light of learners’ growing exposure to L2 input outside the classroom. Teachers should aim to raise learners’ awareness of the positive effects of engaging in informal learning activities and strive to exploit the benefits of this out-of-class exposure within the classroom setting. To accomplish this, teachers are encouraged to map learners’ extramural language interests and experiences by collecting data using a range of research instruments. These instruments may combine traditional methodologies (e.g., language diaries) with more innovative methodological options to quantify the frequency and type of exposure to the L2 outside the classroom. Examples include the LANG-TRACK-APP (Arndt et al., 2023) and the incorporation of the latest digital technologies, such as Artificial Intelligence and Virtual Reality (Lee, 2022). The chapter also discusses the development of “bridging activities” (Thorne & Reinhardt, 2008) and the implementation of innovative pedagogical approaches (e.g., blended learning, the Flipped classroom) aimed at connecting classroom instruction with informal language practices. It also addresses the importance of taking into account personalized environments, such as the Personal Learning Environment (PLE) of each learner, highlighting their unique language experiences (including formal, non-formal, and informal language learning) and individual developmental trajectories (Sockett, 2023).

Finally, Chapter 7 offers a comprehensive overview of the key findings discussed in each chapter of this volume. These findings cover several areas. Firstly, there is an emphasis on standardizing the terminology associated with informal language learning. Secondly, the crucial role of input in informal language learning is highlighted. Additionally, output and interaction are examined as pivotal elements intertwined with informal learning. Thirdly, the chapter provides a detailed exploration of informal learning practices, including watching TV programmes, series and films (with or without subtitles), listening to songs, and participating in digital gaming. It also examines other literacy-related activities conducted outside the classroom, such as reading, writing, and speaking. Additionally, it emphasizes the significance of considering learners’ individual learning paths and the mediating influence of various variables, including age, gender, proficiency, motivation, and engagement, among others. Lastly, the chapter addresses the primary pedagogical challenges confronted by teachers in response to the growing availability of authentic L2 content on the internet and the ongoing advances in language-related technology. The conclusion offers several recommendations for future research.

It is worth noting that previous books have been published on this topic, for example, Sockett (2014) analyzed Online Informal Learning of English (OILE), Sunqvist and Sylvén (2016) focused on Extramural Practices (EE), Toffoli et al. (2023) recently edited a collection of papers on the connection between language learning and leisure. However, more research needs to be carried out to advance our knowledge of the effects of informal language practices on language outcomes and how to better integrate such practices into the classroom. The present monograph adds to existing research by exploring the role of informal learning in second language acquisition. It is aimed for readers who may not be familiar with this area of research but are interested in starting to investigate a field that is still widely unexplored. Teachers will also benefit from this publication so as to become aware of the role of out-of-school activities in their students’ learning and the possibilities of implementing these practices in the classroom. Finally, this monograph can also be useful for the general reader who is open to learning how language acquisition and teaching progress hand in hand with the widespread use of new technologies (Godwin-Jones, 2018, 2019; Sockett, 2023).

References

Arndt, H. (2019). Informal second language learning: The role of engagement, proficiency, attitudes, and motivation. Ph.D. Dissertation. Oxford: University of Oxford.