Luke on Trial

Divine Testing in Luke-Acts

Divine testing occurs in several texts of the biblical tradition. The testing of Abraham (Gen 22:1) and Job (Job 1–2), Israel’s forty years of wandering in the desert (Deut 8:2–6), and the Devil’s testing of Jesus (Matt 4:1–11 with parallels) constitute, perhaps, the most famous examples of this phenomenon. However, as we shall see by the end of this chapter, these are only a few of a vast number of instances God is either directly or indirectly stated to put individuals or groups to the test. Moreover, the many purposes for doing so are in no way uniform. Abraham is tested to reveal how deep his loyalty to God runs (Gen 22:12). After Abraham has proved himself thoroughly committed to the cause, God can commence with his plan of making him the patriarch of his people (Gen 22:15–18; cf. 12:2–3; 15:5). Job, on the other hand, is tested merely for what seems to be something of a celestial wager. The accuser doubts that Job’s piety runs deep enough to bear the toll of the loss of family, wealth, and eventually his health. Job proves him wrong but is still at a loss concerning why he had to endure all these hardships. The answer he is given from God through the whirlwind is that there is no need for a reason, much less an explanation, as it belongs to the divine prerogative to do so (cf. Job 39:35–38; 42:2–6). Moreover, it is the obligation of his creation to abide. The 40-year wandering in the desert of Israel is presented as a way of chastening, humbling, and testing his people – so that they would know that God disciplines his people like a father disciplines his son (Deut 8:5). When God’s son is tossed (Mark 1:12) into the desert to forego his trials, these motifs for testing seem out of place. It is neither to discipline, test his loyalty, nor even to display the divine prerogative to his creation that he is tested by the Devil. Instead, as we shall see (cf. Chapter 1.2.), the purpose of Jesus’ desert ordeal revolves around the revelation of his person, function, as well as dedication to the cause. In other words, divine testing serves many purposes in the biblical tradition and does not seem to form a single or uniform concept. Therefore, their function must be deduced from the context of the respective text in which they occur.

The concept of divine, or divinely sanctioned, testing is more prevalent in the writings of Luke than in any other book in the New Testament.¹ A brief survey on the use of the various terms used to describe such activities shows the diverging scope in Luke-Acts compared with the other writings in the New Testament in terms of including material about divine testing:

The term most frequently used to refer to these activities is πειράζω (to test, try, and/or tempt) and πειρασμός (test, trial, and/or temptation). In Luke, the verb is only used to refer to divine testing in Luke 4:2. The other occurrences describe testing by human agency (Luke 4:12; 10:25; 11:16; Acts 5:9; 15:10; cf. 9:26; 16:7; 24:6 where the verb is predominantly used in the meaning attempt/try), which is outside the scope of this book. The noun, however, is used almost exclusively to refer to testing by divine agency (Luke 4:13; 8:13; 11:4; 22:40, 46; Acts 20:19; but probably not Luke 22:28, cf. chapter 1.4.3 below). In comparison, the occurrences of these terms in the New Testament outside of Luke-Acts are comprehensive but used to a lesser extent.²

The verb σινιάζω (to sift) occurs only in Luke 22:31, where it is used as an idiom referring to the trials awaiting the disciples in the time following the arrest and crucifixion of Jesus.

The verb δοκιμάζω (to approve/test) is in the New Testament sometimes used to refer to the divine mode of testing (1 Cor 3:13; 2 Cor 13:5; 1 Thess 2:4; 1 Pet 1:7), but is mainly used in terms of testing done by humans (Rom 1:28; 2:18; 12:2; 14:22; 1 Cor 11:28; 16:3; 2 Cor 8:8; 13:5; Gal 6:4; Eph 5:10; Phil 1:10; 1 Thess 5:21; 1 Tim 3:10). This is also the case with Luke (Luke 12:56; 14:19). The noun (δόκιμιον) does not occur in Luke-Acts but is found in 1 Pet 1:7 with reference to divine testing by fire, and in Jas 1:3 presumably with a human executor in mind (cf. Jas 1:12). The adjective (δόκιμος) is used with both human and divine agents in mind elsewhere in the New Testament (divine: 2 Cor 10:18; 13:7; 2 Tim 2:15; human: Rom 14:18; 1 Cor 11:19; Jas 1:12; cf. Rom 16:10 that can be interpreted either way), but not in Luke-Acts.

From this brief survey, we can conclude that Luke-Acts seems to be emphasizing the element of divine testing to a greater extent compared to the other writings of the New Testament. This study aims to probe the Lukan text in search of the meaning given to these scenes of testing in the narrative. The Lukan scenes involving divine testing are then as follows: The testing of Jesus in the desert (Luke 4:1–13); The parable of the Sower (8:4–21); Jesus’ instruction on prayer (11:1–13); the section on instructions succeeding the last supper (22:21–38); the scene on the Mount of Olives (22:28–53); and Paul’s speech to the elders of Ephesus (Acts 20:17–35). In addition, I will include an additional, but in my opinion highly relevant, scene from Acts in the tragic story about Ananias and Saphira (Acts 5:1–11), as it appears to be presented as a trial of fidelity which involves several supernatural actants such as Satan, the Holy Spirit (5:3); God (5:4), and The Spirit of the Lord (5:9). These texts will be my primary texts of analysis. In addition, emphasis will be given to the sections of the Lukan writings that have no parallels in Mark and Matthew, as they convey and represent his special contribution to this element in the early Christian tradition. When not deriving his material from a common source, Q or Mark, his particular take on the subject matter is brought to the fore in an unrestricted manner. Similarly, any alteration or rephrasing of said sources will be of utmost importance.