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Title: Native Speakerism

Native Speakerism

Discriminatory Employment Practices in Polish Language Schools

by Tomasz Paciorkowski (Author)
©2022 Monographs 296 Pages
Linguistics
Series: Studies in Linguistics, Anglophone Literatures and Cultures, Volume 33

Summary

The main purpose of the book is to explore whether native speakerism has an influence on Polish language schools, using the explanatory mixed-methods design. The findings show that the ideology is present in Poland, but it is manifested in complex and subtle ways. Most prominent findings indicate a wage gap between teachers considered native speakers and their Polish counterparts, and the discrepancy between the levels of education required of the two groups, with native speakers often being employed without necessary qualifications. Finally, the findings suggest that Polish teacher education programmes should expose budding teachers to relevant literature regarding native speakerism and other issues related to native and non-native speaker status so that they can critically examine them.

Table Of Contents

  • Cover
  • Title
  • Copyright
  • About the author
  • About the book
  • This eBook can be cited
  • Acknowledgements
  • Table of contents
  • List of tables
  • List of figures
  • Introduction
  • Chapter 1: From native speaker to native speakerism
  • 1.1. Introduction: Origin of the phrase native speaker
  • 1.2. Who is a native speaker?
  • 1.3. Nations and national languages
  • 1.3.1. Language standardisation
  • 1.3.2. Language myths and native speakers
  • 1.3.3. The native speaker in applied linguistics
  • 1.4. Who is a non-native speaker?
  • 1.4.1. Non-native speakers’ deficit in language teaching
  • 1.4.2. Non-native speakers’ difference in language teaching
  • 1.4.3. Is our existing terminology good enough?
  • 1.5. Native Speakerism
  • 1.5.1. What are ideology and discourse?
  • 1.5.2. What is native speakerism?
  • 1.5.3. The predecessors of native speakerism
  • 1.6. The world of ELT and manifestations of native speakerism
  • 1.6.1. The reality of the ELT field
  • 1.6.2. The state of research on Native Speakerism and its effects
  • 1.6.3. Critical Pedagogy in ELT
  • 1.6.4. Criticism of Native Speakerism
  • 1.7. Conclusions
  • Chapter 2: Englishes in the world and in Poland
  • 2.1. Introduction
  • 2.2. World Englishes
  • 2.2.1. Kachru’s Concentric Model
  • 2.2.2. The Dynamic Model in the Expanding Circle
  • 2.2.3. English Lingua Franca (ELF)
  • 2.2.3.1. Criticism of English as Lingua Franca
  • 2.2.3.2. ELF and the present thesis
  • 2.2.4. The emergence of Euro-English(es)?
  • 2.2.5. The ownership of English
  • 2.2.6. The situation of the English language in Poland
  • 2.2.6.1. English in Poland prior to 1989
  • 2.2.6.2. English in the post-socialist era
  • Chapter 3: Methodology, research questions, and data analysis
  • 3.1. Introduction
  • 3.1.1. (Post-)Positivist versus Constructivist worldviews
  • 3.1.2. Mixed-methods research to the rescue
  • 3.1.3. Pragmatism in MMR
  • 3.1.4. Why is pragmatism-oriented MMR appropriate for the present project?
  • 3.2. Rationale for the study
  • 3.3. Methodological design and tools
  • 3.3.1. Questionnaires
  • 3.3.2. Semi-structured interviews
  • 3.4. Research questions prior to the pilot study
  • 3.4.1. Pre-pilot teacher questionnaire
  • 3.4.2. Pre-pilot language school questionnaire
  • 3.5. Pilot studies
  • 3.5.1. Piloting the language school survey
  • 3.5.2. Piloting the teacher survey
  • 3.5.3. Piloting the student survey
  • 3.5.4. Conclusions from the pilot studies
  • 3.6. Revisited research questions
  • 3.7. Sampling strategies and sample sizes in quantitative and qualitative parts of the study
  • 3.8. Data analysis
  • 3.9. Quantitative data analysis
  • 3.10. Qualitative data analysis
  • 3.11. Quantitising qualitative survey data
  • 3.12. MMR data analysis
  • 3.13. Ethical considerations
  • 3.14. Conclusions
  • Chapter 4: Results
  • 4.1. Introduction
  • 4.2. Who is a native speaker?
  • 4.2.1. The native speaker according to teachers
  • 4.2.2. The native speaker according to students’ parents
  • 4.2.3. The native speaker according to students
  • 4.2.4. Comparing results: the overall image of the native speaker
  • 4.2.5. Native speakers as seen by interviewed teachers
  • 4.3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of native speaker teachers and non-native Polish speaker teachers of English?
  • 4.3.1. Native speaker teachers
  • 4.3.1.1. Advantages of native speaker teachers according to Polish teachers
  • 4.3.1.2. Disadvantages of native speaker teachers according to Polish teachers
  • 4.3.1.3. Advantages of native speakers according to parents of students
  • 4.3.1.4. Disadvantages of native speakers according to parents of students
  • 4.3.1.5. Advantages of native speaker teachers according to students
  • 4.3.1.6. Disadvantages of native speaker teachers according to students
  • 4.3.1.7. Comparing results: Overview of advantages and disadvantages of native speaker teachers
  • 4.3.1.8. The picture of native speaker teachers from the interviews
  • 4.3.1.8.1. Native speakers: Linguistic advantages and disadvantages
  • 4.3.1.8.2. Native speakers: Pedagogical advantages and disadvantages
  • 4.2.1.8.3. Native speakers: Sociocultural advantages and disadvantages
  • 4.2.1.8.4. Other comments on native speaker teachers’ advantages and disadvantages
  • 4.3.2. Non-native speaker teachers
  • 4.3.2.1. Advantages of Polish teachers of English as seen by themselves
  • 4.3.2.2. Disadvantages of Polish teachers of English as seen by themselves
  • 4.3.2.3. Advantages of Polish teachers of English as seen by parents of students
  • 4.3.2.4. Disadvantages of Polish teachers of English as seen by parents of students
  • 4.3.2.5. Advantages of Polish teachers of English as seen by students
  • 4.3.2.6. Disadvantages of Polish teachers of English as seen by students
  • 4.3.2.7. Comparing results: Overview of advantages and disadvantages of Polish teachers of English
  • 4.3.2.8. The picture of non-native speaker teachers from the interviews
  • 4.3.2.8.1. Non-native speakers: Linguistic advantages and disadvantages
  • 4.3.2.8.2. Non-native speakers: Pedagogical advantages and disadvantages
  • 4.3.2.8.3. Non-native speakers: Sociocultural advantages and disadvantages
  • 4.3.2.8.4. Other comments on non-native speaker teachers’ advantages and disadvantages
  • 4.4. Is it a native or non-native speaker preference?
  • 4.4.1. What do parents of students think about native and Polish teachers of English?
  • 4.4.2. What do students think about native and Polish teachers of English?
  • 4.4.3. What do Polish teachers of English think of themselves and native speaker teachers?
  • 4.4.4. Can these trends and observations be found in interview data?
  • 4.4.4.1. Classes in tandem
  • 4.4.4.2. L1 attitudes in the classroom
  • 4.4.5. Private language school preferences
  • 4.4.6. Signs of overt discrimination against non-native speakers
  • 4.4.6.1. Hourly wages
  • 4.4.6.2. Qualifications
  • 4.4.6.3. Differences in attitudes
  • 4.4.6.4. Discrimination at language schools
  • 4.4.6.5. Passing as a native speaker
  • 4.4.7. Outer Circle speakers
  • 4.4.8. The telling case of T2
  • 4.5. Conclusions
  • Chapter 5: Discussion and implications of the results
  • 5.1. Introduction
  • 5.2. Who is a native speaker?
  • 5.3. Advantages and disadvantages of native speakers and Polish teachers of English
  • 5.4. Preference for native vs. Polish teachers of English
  • 5.4.1. Preferences of language schools
  • 5.4.2. Preferences of students and parents
  • 5.4.3. Preference for Inner Circle speakers of English
  • 5.5. Discrimination toward native and Polish teachers of English
  • 5.6. Redefinition of native speakerism
  • 5.6.1. Holliday’s native speakerism in the Polish context
  • 5.6.2. An alternative definition of native speakerism Houghton and Rivers (2013)
  • 5.6.3. Holliday (2015): Native speakerism revisited
  • 5.6.4. Assessment: native speakerism in Poland and the world
  • 5.7. Implications for teacher education programmes and language schools
  • 5.7.1. Implications for teacher education programmes
  • 5.7.2. Implications for language schools
  • 5.8. Conclusions
  • Conclusion and suggestions for further research
  • Summary
  • References
  • Appendix A: Language Schools Questionnaire (Polish original)
  • Appendix B: Students Questionnaire (Polish original)
  • Appendix C: Parents of Students Questionnaire (Polish original)
  • Appendix D: Polish Teachers of English Questionnaire (Polish original)
  • Appendix E: Language Schools Questionnaire (English translation)
  • Appendix F: Students Questionnaire (English translation)
  • Appendix G: Parents of Students Questionnaire (English translation)
  • Appendix H: Polish Teachers of English Questionnaire (English translation)
  • Appendix I: Consent Form
  • Appendix J: Information concerning the project
  • Index
  • Series Index

←14 | 15→

List of tables

Table 1. EIF model with post and non-post-colonial Englishes (adapted from Buschfeld and Kautzsch 2016: 11)

Table 2. Revisited research questions

Table 3. Students – basic data

Table 4. Polish teachers of English – basic data

Table 5. Parents of students – basic data

Table 6. Language schools – basic data

Table 7. Answers given by parents concerning their children and teachers of English

Table 8. Answers given by students concerning certain aspects pertaining to English language teaching divided by whether they are currently enrolled at a language school

Table 9. Answers given by Polish teachers pertaining to certain aspects of English language teaching

Table 10. Data on whether Polish and native speaker teachers require appropriate education

Table 11. Factors that influence the recruitment process

Table 12. Answers given by language school staff concerning teachers of English

Table 13. Answers pertaining to Polish teachers of English and native speakers given by all cohorts (1 – teachers; 2 – parents; 3 – students; 4 – language schools)

Table 14. Answers given by parents and students pertaining to certain opinions on Polish and native speaker teachers (1 – parents; 2 – students)

Table 15. Answers given by teachers, parents, and students (1 – teachers; 2 – parents; 3 – students)

Table 16. Answers pertaining to Polish and native speaker teachers given by parents, students, and language schools (1 – parents; 2 – students; 3 – language schools)

←16 | 17→

List of figures

Fig. 1. Who is a native speaker? (teachers / tokens)

Fig. 2. Who is a native speaker? (teachers / percentage)

Fig. 3. Who is a native speaker? (parents / tokens)

Fig. 4. Who is a native speaker? (parents / percentage)

Fig. 5. Who is a native speaker? (students / tokens)

Fig. 6. Who is a native speaker? (students / percentage)

Fig. 7. Who is a native speaker? (overall / tokens)

Fig. 8. Who is a native speaker? (overall / percentage)

Fig. 9. Advantages of native speaker teachers (teachers / tokens)

Fig. 10. Advantages of native speaker teachers (teachers / percentage)

Fig. 11. Disadvantages of native speaker teachers (teachers / tokens)

Fig. 12. Disadvantages of native speaker teachers (teachers / percentage)

Fig. 13. Advantages of native speaker teachers (parents / tokens)

Fig. 14. Advantages of native speaker teachers (parents / percentage)

Fig. 15. Disadvantages of native speaker teachers (parents / tokens)

Fig. 16. Disadvantages of native speaker teachers (parents / percentage)

Fig. 17. Advantages of native speaker teachers (students / tokens)

Fig. 18. Advantages of native speaker teachers (students / percentage)

Fig. 19. Disadvantages of native speaker teachers (students / tokens)

Fig. 20. Disadvantages of native speaker teachers (students / percentage)

Fig. 21. Advantages of native speaker teachers (overall / tokens)

Fig. 22. Advantages of native speaker teachers (overall / percentage)

Fig. 23. Disadvantages of native speaker teachers (overall / tokens)

Fig. 24. Disadvantages of native speaker teachers (overall / percentage)

Fig. 25. Advantages of Polish teachers of English (teachers / tokens)

Fig. 26. Advantages of Polish teachers of English (teachers / percentage)

Fig. 27. Disadvantages of Polish teachers of English (teachers / tokens)

Fig. 28. Disadvantages of Polish teachers of English (teachers / percentage)

Fig. 29. Advantages of Polish teachers of English (parents / tokens)

Fig. 30. Advantages of Polish teachers of English (parents / percentage)

Fig. 31. Disadvantages of Polish teachers of English (parents / tokens)

Fig. 32. Disadvantages of Polish teachers of English (parents / percentage)

Fig. 33. Advantages of Polish teachers of English (students / tokens)

Fig. 34. Advantages of Polish teachers of English (students / percentage)

←17 | 18→

Fig. 35. Disadvantages of Polish teachers of English (students / tokens)

Fig. 36. Disadvantages of Polish teachers of English (students / percentage)

Fig. 37. Advantages of Polish teachers of English (overall / tokens)

Fig. 38. Advantages of Polish teachers of English (overall / percentage)

Fig. 39. Disadvantages of Polish teachers of English (overall / tokens)

Fig. 40. Disadvantages of Polish teachers of English (overall / percentage)

Fig. 41. Classes with native speakers among parents and their self-reported level of English

Fig. 42. Parents’ stay abroad and their opinion that Polish teachers of English focus too much on grammar

Fig. 43. Students’ self-reported level of English and their opinion on whether they prefer to have classes with a Polish teacher of English rather than a native speaker

Fig. 44. The experience of having classes with a native speaker and their preference concerning having classes with a Polish teacher of English

Fig. 45. Teachers’ stay abroad and their opinion concerning their knowledge of English-speaking area culture

Fig. 46. Language school staff’s opinion on Polish and native speaker teachers’ wages

Fig. 47. The correlation between the importance of native speaker status and native speaker employment

Fig. 48. Employment of native speakers and reported demand for classes with Polish teachers of English

Introduction

The purpose of this introduction is to lay the foundations necessary for the successful realisation of the present project. First, the key theoretical concepts related to native speakerism will be presented along with the general aim of the thesis. This section will be followed by a brief evaluation of research on the topic, to highlight the gaps in the current state of knowledge that this project aims to bridge. The methodology will then be reviewed, and the structure of the thesis laid out.

The onset of scientific research regarding the issues relating to native and non-native speakers can be attributed to two major figures in the discipline of English Language Teaching (ELT), namely Robert Philipson in 1992 and Peter Medgyes in 1994. Both managed to identify a major lacuna in scientific knowledge and propose a research agenda for the coming decades. Their pioneering research has since been extended and broadened by other scholars who have explored numerous other avenues such as, e.g., discriminatory practices in job advertisements (Song and Zhang 2010; Selvi 2011; Mahboob and Golden 2013; Ruecker and Ives 2014; Kiczkowiak 2015), preference for native speakers in recruitment policies (Braine 1999a; Flynn and Gulikers 2001; Mahboob et al. 2004; Clark and Paran 2007), strengths and weaknesses of both native and non-native speaker teachers (Árva and Medgyes 2000; Llurda 2005b; Ma 2012), and students’ perceptions and attitudes (Lasagabaster and Sierra 2002; Moussu 2002; Cheung and Braine 2007; Liang 2009).

As research on native and non-native speaker issues was expanding, a major paradigm shift in the field came from Holliday (2005), who first coined the term native speakerism and in so doing showcased how deeply rooted the problems tackled by this line of investigation are. According to Holliday, native speakerism is a prevailing ideology that grants native speakers a special place within the field of ELT, regarding them as having ideal knowledge not only of the English language but also of culture and methodology. Since Holliday’s ground-breaking publication, the concept of native speakerism has steadily gained traction over the last 15 years, including attempts to review and modify the original definition by e.g., Houghton and Rivers (2013) and Holliday (2015).

While the aforementioned research was occupying centre stage in ELT, a crucial debate has also been taking place in the background concerning the definition of the term “native speaker.” The term was first introduced by arguably the most prominent linguist of the twentieth century, Noam Chomsky. However, ←19 | 20→Chomsky’s definition was not designed for the practical and applied context of the field of ELT but was meant to serve as more of abstraction in linguistic research (Coulmas 1981: 10). Since then, numerous scholars have taken it upon themselves to properly define the concept. Most of the definitions available can be divided into two main groups: characteristic-centred (Stern 1983; Bloomfield 1984; Davies 1991, 2003, 2012, 2013) and identify-focused (Munro and Derwing 1994; Fledge et al. 1995; Piller 2002). Notwithstanding these efforts, much remains to be done to accurately pin down the notion of native speaker. Additionally, a number of scholars such as Davies, Pennycook (1998), and Holliday (2005, 2013, 2015) underscore that “individuals regard themselves (and others) as native speakers for symbolic, rather than communicative purposes” (2003: 76). Moreover, as observed by Kiczkowiak (2018), the definition of a native speaker from the point of view of teachers, students, and parents still remains to be investigated.

The situation of Polish teachers of English with regard to native speakerism remains greatly understudied, as Poland has been almost nonexistent on the global map of research devoted to the issue. The only exceptions are the master’s thesis of Kula (2011) and, more notably, the doctoral dissertation of Kiczkowiak (2018). Such a state of affairs is strikingly inadequate, considering the rapid spread of English language instruction across Poland since the fall of Communism in 1989. According to Śliwa (2010), around 80 % of all matura (school-leaving exam) takers chose English as their obligatory foreign language as early as in 2008. Moreover, Adamchik et al. (2017) showed that knowledge of English can increase wages by 30 % to 50 %. This suggests that English language teachers have become increasingly important not only in the Polish educational system but also for the country’s economy. Therefore, it is necessary to take steps to ensure that prospective students are being educated by highly trained professionals.

It is estimated that over 80 % of all teachers of English around the world are non-native speakers (Canagarajah 2005; Braine 2010). No such data is available for Poland; however, it can be safely assumed that the percentage is higher, as the estimates provided include such English-dominant “Inner Circle” countries as the US or the UK. As mentioned above, a vast body of available research shows that non-native speaker teachers experience both covert and overt forms of discrimination, a pattern that, as the present study will demonstrate, is also found in present-day Poland. It is therefore of paramount importance to ensure that Polish teachers of English are both qualified and treated as fully-fledged professionals on a par with their native-speaking colleagues. Such a result can be achieved by a systematic study of the situation of Polish teachers of English on ←20 | 21→the ELT market and by addressing any signs of discrimination, be it against them or against native speakers of English.

Aside from the intellectual reasons for pursuing such a timely and socially relevant topic, the author of the present thesis also found inspiration and motivation to conduct this study in his personal experiences. I have been a teacher of English for almost a decade, during which I have taught students at all levels and ages: from kindergarten pupils and university students to seniors well into their 60s. In my practice, I have both experienced and been a witness to discriminatory practices at language schools in Poland, ranging from being asked to pretend to be a native speaker to receiving lower hourly wages than my native-speaking colleagues. Not surprisingly, these practices have often led me to feel inferior due to my non-native speaker status. My experiences, along with those of my colleagues, ignited my interest in native/non-native speaker issues and native speakerism, so I decided to explore the matter not anecdotally, but in a systematic, scientific manner to help, support, and protect others like me who are entering or are already in the profession of ELT.

The present project aims to bridge the knowledge gaps indicated above. The research question at the forefront of this thesis is whether there exist indications of native speakerism in Polish language schools and, if so, how they are manifested. To answer this question, the author collected responses from students, parents, and teachers to questions such as who a native speaker actually is and what some of the advantages and disadvantages of both native and non-native speaker teachers are. The questionnaires developed for this purpose were meant to gauge whether there exist preferences for native or non-native speaker teachers both in opinions and in recruitment practices enacted at Polish private language schools. Teachers’ views are also investigated to see whether they have ever experienced discrimination themselves and whether they are aware of its presence. The thesis also examines whether native speakers from Inner Circle countries are preferred to those from the Outer Circle (countries such as India or Nigeria) by language schools.

Details

Pages
296
Publication Year
2022
ISBN (PDF)
9783631878613
ISBN (ePUB)
9783631881156
ISBN (MOBI)
9783631881163
ISBN (Hardcover)
9783631874646
DOI
10.3726/b19811
Language
English
Publication date
2022 (August)
Keywords
native speaker non-native speaker discrimination ideology wage gap teachers
Published
Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Warszawa, Wien, 2022. 296 pp., 48 fig. b/w, 16 tables.
Product Safety
Peter Lang Group AG

Biographical notes

Tomasz Paciorkowski (Author)

Tomasz Paciorkowski, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of English Linguistics at the Faculty of Linguistics of the Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz. His research interests focus mainly on native speakerism and non-native speaker teachers.

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Title: Native Speakerism